Update.

1998-04-21 18:00  Ulrich Drepper  <drepper@cygnus.com>

	* iconv/gconv.c (__gconv): Remove bogus input buffer size computation.

	* iconv/gconv_open.c (__gconv_open): Initialize outbufend element.

	* iconv/gconv_simple.c (__gconv_transform_internal_ascii): Don't use
	character in comparison with uint32_t.
	(__gconv_transform_internal_utf8): Specify MAX_NEEDED_TO.
	(__gconv_transform_utf8_internal): Specify MAX_NEEDED_FROM.
	Optimize BODY a bit.

	* iconv/loop.c: Require MIN_NEEDED_INPUT and MIN_NEEDED_OUTPUT to
	be defined.

	* iconv/skeleton.c: Also reset converted counter in case of an error.
	Call reset function using correct value for output buffer start.

	* iconvdata/Makefile: Re-enable tests.

	* iconvdata/iso8859-1.c: Swap MIN_NEEDED_INPUT and MIN_NEEDED_OUTPUT
	value for to-conversion.

	* iconvdata/TESTS: Add new third column.
	* iconvdata/run-iconv-test.sh: Add support for charsets which are
	not ASCII based.
	* iconvdata/testdata/suntzus: New file.

	* elf/dl-minimal.c (__strtol_internal): Increment pointer to string
	while reading.  Correctly used base.  Little optimization.
	(__strtoul_internal): Likewise.

	* elf/rtld.c (dl_main): Test to avoid duplicate call of _dl_init_paths
	was wrong.  Use explicit variable.

1998-04-20 23:49  Zack Weinberg  <zack@rabi.phys.columbia.edu>

	* configure.in: Check for awk.
	* config.make.in: Add AWK to be substituted.

	* manual/xtract-typefun.awk: Rewrite to eliminate gawk extensions.
	* manual/users.texi: Fix typo exposed by above rewrite.

	* Makefile: Invoke awk using AWK variable.
	* csu/Makefile: Likewise.
	* elf/Makefile: Likewise.
	* mach/Makefile: Likewise.
	* manual/Makefile: Likewise.
	* sysdeps/gnu/Makefile: Likewise.
	* sysdeps/mach/hurd/Makefile: Likewise.
	* sysdeps/unix/Makefile: Likewise.
	* timezone/Makefile: Likewise.

1998-04-10  Gordon Matzigkeit  <gord@profitpress.com>

	* sysdeps/gnu/errlist.awk (ERR_REMAP): Implement error code to
	array index translation.
	(SYS_ERRLIST_ALIAS, SYS_NERR_ALIAS): Make weak aliases only if
	these are defined.

	* sysdeps/mach/hurd/Dist: Add errlist.c to distribution.

	* sysdeps/mach/hurd/errlist.c: New file.
	(ERR_TRANSLATE): Map Hurd error codes into errlist indices.
	(_hurd_errlist): The Hurd error list doesn't have Unix sys_errlist
	semantics, so rename it.

1998-04-16  Andreas Schwab  <schwab@issan.informatik.uni-dortmund.de>

	* iconvdata/run-iconv-test.sh: Make portable.  Always test all
	conversions.

1998-04-21 12:30  H.J. Lu  <hjl@gnu.org>

	* wcsmbs/wcsrtombs.c (__wcsrtombs): Initialize result to 0.
	* wcsmbs/wcsnrtombs.c: Likewise.

1998-04-21  Ulrich Drepper  <drepper@cygnus.com>

	* sysdeps/generic/dl-sysdep.c: Handle _dl_hwcap correctly.

	* wcsmbs/btowc.c (__btowc): Declare inptr as const char *.

	* time/strftime.c (my_strftime): Initialize pad variable in
	declaration.

	* iconvdata/big5.c: Don't use character constants in comparisons
	with unsigned value.

	* sysdeps/generic/setutxent.c: New file.
	* sysdeps/generic/getutxent.c: New file.
	* sysdeps/generic/endutxent.c: New file.
	* sysdeps/generic/getutxid.c: New file.
	* sysdeps/generic/getutxline.c: New file.
	* sysdeps/generic/pututxline.c: New file.
	* sysdeps/generic/utmpxname.c: New file.
	* sysdeps/generic/updwtmpx.c: New file.

6 files changed, 1740 insertions, 32 deletions

diff --git a/iconvdata/Makefile b/iconvdata/Makefile
index 69576859ec..c590ab20b4 100644
--- a/iconvdata/Makefile
+++ b/iconvdata/Makefile
@@ -211,7 +211,7 @@ endif
 include ../Rules
 
 .PHONY: do-iconv-test
-#tests: do-iconv-test
+tests: do-iconv-test
 
 do-iconv-test: run-iconv-test.sh $(objpfx)gconv-modules \
 	       $(addprefix $(objpfx),$(modules.so)) \
diff --git a/iconvdata/TESTS b/iconvdata/TESTS
index 41d7edcaf1..c37381e70d 100644
--- a/iconvdata/TESTS
+++ b/iconvdata/TESTS
@@ -18,22 +18,24 @@
 # write to the Free Software Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place - Suite 330,
 # Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA.
 
-# Each line consists of at least three entries:
+# Each line consists of at least four entries:
 # 1.  input file name.
 # 2.  output file name; this is different from the input file name only for
 #     conversions which do not produce the same output when the transformation
 #     is applied back and forth.
-# 3.
+# 3.  Y or N depending of whether the character set contains ASCII as a
+#     subset or not.
+# 4.
 # ...
 # N.  target coded character set.
 
-ISO-8859-1	ISO-8859-1	UTF8
-ISO-8859-2	ISO-8859-2	UCS4 UTF8
-ISO-8859-3	ISO-8859-3	UTF8
-ISO-8859-4	ISO-8859-4	UTF8
-ISO-8859-5	ISO-8859-5	UTF8
-ISO-8859-6	ISO-8859-6	UTF8
-ISO-8859-7	ISO-8859-7	UTF8
-ISO-8859-8	ISO-8859-8	UTF8
-ISO-8859-9	ISO-8859-9	UTF8
-ISO-8859-10	ISO-8859-10	UCS2 UTF8
+ISO-8859-1	ISO-8859-1	Y	UTF8
+ISO-8859-2	ISO-8859-2	Y	UCS4 UTF8
+ISO-8859-3	ISO-8859-3	Y	UTF8
+ISO-8859-4	ISO-8859-4	Y	UTF8
+ISO-8859-5	ISO-8859-5	Y	UTF8
+ISO-8859-6	ISO-8859-6	Y	UTF8
+ISO-8859-7	ISO-8859-7	Y	UTF8
+ISO-8859-8	ISO-8859-8	Y	UTF8
+ISO-8859-9	ISO-8859-9	Y	UTF8
+ISO-8859-10	ISO-8859-10	Y	UCS2 UTF8
diff --git a/iconvdata/big5.c b/iconvdata/big5.c
index 2962712167..d4d89a04ff 100644
--- a/iconvdata/big5.c
+++ b/iconvdata/big5.c
@@ -8431,7 +8431,7 @@ static const char from_ucs4_tab13[][2] =
   {									      \
     uint32_t ch = *inptr;						      \
 									      \
-    if (ch >= '\xa1' && ch <= '\xff')					      \
+    if (ch >= 0xa1 && ch <= 0xff)					      \
       {									      \
 	/* Two-byte character.  First test whether the next character	      \
 	   is also available.  */					      \
@@ -8448,9 +8448,9 @@ static const char from_ucs4_tab13[][2] =
 	idx = (ch - 0xa1) * 157;					      \
 	ch2 = inptr[1];							      \
 	/* See whether the second byte is in the correct range.  */	      \
-	if (ch2 >= '\x40' && ch2 <= '\x7e')				      \
+	if (ch2 >= 0x40 && ch2 <= 0x7e)					      \
 	  idx += ch2 - 0x40;						      \
-	else if (ch2 >= '\xa1' && ch2 <= '\xfe')			      \
+	else if (ch2 >= 0xa1 && ch2 <= 0xfe)				      \
 	  idx += 0x3f + (ch2 - 0xa1);					      \
 	else								      \
 	  {								      \
@@ -8463,7 +8463,7 @@ static const char from_ucs4_tab13[][2] =
 	ch = big5_to_ucs[idx];						      \
 									      \
 	/* Is this character defined?  */				      \
-	if (ch == L'\0' && *inptr != '\0')				      \
+	if (ch == 0 && *inptr != '\0')					      \
 	  {								      \
 	    /* This is an illegal character.  */			      \
 	    result = GCONV_ILLEGAL_INPUT;				      \
diff --git a/iconvdata/iso8859-1.c b/iconvdata/iso8859-1.c
index 3e50b79f17..c7b35b37dc 100644
--- a/iconvdata/iso8859-1.c
+++ b/iconvdata/iso8859-1.c
@@ -39,8 +39,8 @@
 
 
 /* Next, define the other direction.  */
-#define MIN_NEEDED_INPUT	MIN_NEEDED_FROM
-#define MIN_NEEDED_OUTPUT	MIN_NEEDED_TO
+#define MIN_NEEDED_INPUT	MIN_NEEDED_TO
+#define MIN_NEEDED_OUTPUT	MIN_NEEDED_FROM
 #define LOOPFCT			TO_LOOP
 #define BODY \
   {									      \
diff --git a/iconvdata/run-iconv-test.sh b/iconvdata/run-iconv-test.sh
index af6a136c4a..45061373cf 100755
--- a/iconvdata/run-iconv-test.sh
+++ b/iconvdata/run-iconv-test.sh
@@ -37,37 +37,50 @@ ICONV="$codir/elf/ld.so --library-path $codir $codir/iconv/iconv_prog"
 
 # We read the file named TESTS.  All non-empty lines not starting with
 # `#' are interpreted as commands.
-while read from to targets; do
+failed=0
+while read from to subset targets; do
   # Ignore empty and comment lines.
   if test -z "$targets" || test "$from" = '#'; then continue; fi
 
   for t in $targets; do
     $ICONV -f $from -t $t testdata/$from > $temp1 ||
-      { echo "*** conversion from $from to $t failed"; exit 1; }
+      { echo "*** conversion from $from to $t failed"; failed=1; }
     if test -s testdata/$from..$t; then
       cmp $temp1 testdata/$from..$t >& /dev/null ||
-	{ echo "*** $from -> $t conversion failed"; exit 1; }
+	{ echo "*** $from -> $t conversion failed"; failed=1; }
     fi
     $ICONV -f $t -t $to -o $temp2 $temp1 ||
-      { echo "*** conversion from $t to $to failed"; exit 1; }
+      { echo "*** conversion from $t to $to failed"; failed=1; }
     test -s $temp1 && cmp testdata/$from $temp2 >& /dev/null ||
-      { echo "*** $from -> t -> $to conversion failed"; exit 1; }
+      { echo "*** $from -> t -> $to conversion failed"; failed=1; }
     rm -f $temp1 $temp2
 
-    # Now test some bigger text, entirely in ASCII.
-    $ICONV -f $from -t $t testdata/suntzus |
-    $ICONV -f $t -t $to > $temp1 ||
-      { echo "*** conversion $from->$t->$to of suntzus failed"; exit 1; }
-    cmp testdata/suntzus.txt $temp1 ||
-      { echo "*** conversion $from->$t->$to of suntzus incorrect"; exit 1; }
+    # Now test some bigger text, entirely in ASCII.  If ASCII is no subset
+    # of the coded character set we test we convert the test to this
+    # coded character set.  Otherwise we convert to all the TARGETS.
+    if test $subset = Y; then
+      $ICONV -f $from -t $t testdata/suntzus |
+      $ICONV -f $t -t $to > $temp1 ||
+	{ echo "*** conversion $from->$t->$to of suntzus failed"; failed=1; }
+      cmp testdata/suntzus $temp1 ||
+	{ echo "*** conversion $from->$t->$to of suntzus incorrect";
+	  failed=1; }
+    else
+      $ICONV -f ASCII -t $to testdata/suntzus |
+      $ICONV -f $to -f ASCII > $temp1 ||
+        { echo "*** conversion ASCII->$to->ASCII of suntzus failed";
+	  failed=1; }
+	cmp testdata/suntzus $temp1 ||
+        { echo "*** conversion ASCII->$to->ASCII of suntzus incorrect";
+	  failed=1; }
+    fi
     rm -f $temp1
-
     # All tests ok.
     echo "$from -> $t -> $to ok"
   done
 done < TESTS
 
-exit $?
+exit $failed
 # Local Variables:
 #  mode:shell-script
 # End:
diff --git a/iconvdata/testdata/suntzus b/iconvdata/testdata/suntzus
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..4432c05674
--- /dev/null
+++ b/iconvdata/testdata/suntzus
@@ -0,0 +1,1693 @@
+

+

+

+

+                     SUN TZU ON THE ART OF WAR 

+            THE OLDEST MILITARY TREATISE IN THE WORLD 

+

+                    Translated from the Chinese 

+                    By LIONEL GILES, M.A. (1910)

+

+

+

+[This is the basic text of Sun Tzu on the Art of War.  It was

+extracted from Mr. Giles' complete work as titled above.  The

+commentary itself, which, of course includes this work embedded

+within it, has been released as suntzu10.txt (or suntzu10.zip).

+This is being released only as an adjunct to that work, which

+contains a wealth of commentary upon this text.]

+

+

+

+

+I. LAYING PLANS

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  The art of war is of vital importance

+    to the State.

+

+ 2. It is a matter of life and death, a road either

+    to safety or to ruin.  Hence it is a subject of inquiry

+    which can on no account be neglected.

+

+ 3. The art of war, then, is governed by five constant

+    factors, to be taken into account in one's deliberations,

+    when seeking to determine the conditions obtaining in the field.

+

+ 4. These are:  (1) The Moral Law; (2) Heaven; (3) Earth;

+    (4) The Commander; (5) Method and discipline.

+

+5,6. The Moral Law causes the people to be in complete

+    accord with their ruler, so that they will follow him

+    regardless of their lives, undismayed by any danger.

+

+ 7. Heaven signifies night and day, cold and heat,

+    times and seasons.

+

+ 8. Earth comprises distances, great and small;

+    danger and security; open ground and narrow passes;

+    the chances of life and death.

+

+ 9. The Commander stands for the virtues of wisdom,

+    sincerely, benevolence, courage and strictness.

+

+10. By method and discipline are to be understood

+    the marshaling of the army in its proper subdivisions,

+    the graduations of rank among the officers, the maintenance

+    of roads by which supplies may reach the army, and the

+    control of military expenditure.

+

+11. These five heads should be familiar to every general: 

+    he who knows them will be victorious; he who knows them

+    not will fail.

+

+12. Therefore, in your deliberations, when seeking

+    to determine the military conditions, let them be made

+    the basis of a comparison, in this wise:--

+

+13. (1) Which of the two sovereigns is imbued

+        with the Moral law?

+    (2) Which of the two generals has most ability?

+    (3) With whom lie the advantages derived from Heaven

+        and Earth?

+    (4) On which side is discipline most rigorously enforced?

+    (5) Which army is stronger?

+    (6) On which side are officers and men more highly trained?

+    (7) In which army is there the greater constancy

+        both in reward and punishment?

+

+14. By means of these seven considerations I can

+    forecast victory or defeat.

+

+15. The general that hearkens to my counsel and acts

+    upon it, will conquer:  let such a one be retained in command! 

+    The general that hearkens not to my counsel nor acts upon it,

+    will suffer defeat:--let such a one be dismissed!

+

+16. While heading the profit of my counsel,

+    avail yourself also of any helpful circumstances

+    over and beyond the ordinary rules.

+

+17. According as circumstances are favorable,

+    one should modify one's plans.

+

+18. All warfare is based on deception.

+

+19. Hence, when able to attack, we must seem unable;

+    when using our forces, we must seem inactive; when we

+    are near, we must make the enemy believe we are far away;

+    when far away, we must make him believe we are near.

+

+20. Hold out baits to entice the enemy.  Feign disorder,

+    and crush him.

+

+21. If he is secure at all points, be prepared for him. 

+    If he is in superior strength, evade him.

+

+22. If your opponent is of choleric temper, seek to

+    irritate him.  Pretend to be weak, that he may grow arrogant.

+

+23. If he is taking his ease, give him no rest. 

+    If his forces are united, separate them.

+

+24. Attack him where he is unprepared, appear where

+    you are not expected.

+

+25. These military devices, leading to victory,

+    must not be divulged beforehand.

+

+26. Now the general who wins a battle makes many

+    calculations in his temple ere the battle is fought. 

+    The general who loses a battle makes but few

+    calculations beforehand.  Thus do many calculations

+    lead to victory, and few calculations to defeat: 

+    how much more no calculation at all!  It is by attention

+    to this point that I can foresee who is likely to win or lose.

+

+

+II. WAGING WAR

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  In the operations of war,

+    where there are in the field a thousand swift chariots,

+    as many heavy chariots, and a hundred thousand

+    mail-clad soldiers, with provisions enough to carry them

+    a thousand li, the expenditure at home and at the front,

+    including entertainment of guests, small items such as

+    glue and paint, and sums spent on chariots and armor,

+    will reach the total of a thousand ounces of silver per day. 

+    Such is the cost of raising an army of 100,000 men.

+

+ 2. When you engage in actual fighting, if victory

+    is long in coming, then men's weapons will grow dull and

+    their ardor will be damped.  If you lay siege to a town,

+    you will exhaust your strength.

+ 3. Again, if the campaign is protracted, the resources

+    of the State will not be equal to the strain.

+

+ 4. Now, when your weapons are dulled, your ardor damped,

+    your strength exhausted and your treasure spent,

+    other chieftains will spring up to take advantage

+    of your extremity.  Then no man, however wise,

+    will be able to avert the consequences that must ensue.

+

+ 5. Thus, though we have heard of stupid haste in war,

+    cleverness has never been seen associated with long delays.

+

+ 6. There is no instance of a country having benefited

+    from prolonged warfare.

+

+ 7. It is only one who is thoroughly acquainted

+    with the evils of war that can thoroughly understand

+    the profitable way of carrying it on.

+

+ 8. The skillful soldier does not raise a second levy,

+    neither are his supply-wagons loaded more than twice.

+

+ 9. Bring war material with you from home, but forage

+    on the enemy.  Thus the army will have food enough

+    for its needs.

+

+10. Poverty of the State exchequer causes an army

+    to be maintained by contributions from a distance. 

+    Contributing to maintain an army at a distance causes

+    the people to be impoverished.

+

+11. On the other hand, the proximity of an army causes

+    prices to go up; and high prices cause the people's

+    substance to be drained away.

+

+12. When their substance is drained away, the peasantry

+    will be afflicted by heavy exactions.

+

+13,14. With this loss of substance and exhaustion

+    of strength, the homes of the people will be stripped bare,

+    and three-tenths of their income will be dissipated;

+    while government expenses for broken chariots, worn-out horses,

+    breast-plates and helmets, bows and arrows, spears and shields,

+    protective mantles, draught-oxen and heavy wagons,

+    will amount to four-tenths of its total revenue.

+

+15. Hence a wise general makes a point of foraging

+    on the enemy.  One cartload of the enemy's provisions

+    is equivalent to twenty of one's own, and likewise

+    a single picul of his provender is equivalent to twenty

+    from one's own store.

+

+16. Now in order to kill the enemy, our men must

+    be roused to anger; that there may be advantage from

+    defeating the enemy, they must have their rewards.

+

+17. Therefore in chariot fighting, when ten or more chariots

+    have been taken, those should be rewarded who took the first. 

+    Our own flags should be substituted for those of the enemy,

+    and the chariots mingled and used in conjunction with ours. 

+    The captured soldiers should be kindly treated and kept.

+

+18. This is called, using the conquered foe to augment

+    one's own strength.

+

+19. In war, then, let your great object be victory,

+    not lengthy campaigns.

+

+20. Thus it may be known that the leader of armies

+    is the arbiter of the people's fate, the man on whom it

+    depends whether the nation shall be in peace or in peril.

+

+

+III. ATTACK BY STRATAGEM

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  In the practical art of war, the best

+    thing of all is to take the enemy's country whole and intact;

+    to shatter and destroy it is not so good.  So, too, it is

+    better to recapture an army entire than to destroy it,

+    to capture a regiment, a detachment or a company entire

+    than to destroy them.

+

+ 2. Hence to fight and conquer in all your battles

+    is not supreme excellence; supreme excellence consists

+    in breaking the enemy's resistance without fighting.

+

+ 3. Thus the highest form of generalship is to

+    balk the enemy's plans; the next best is to prevent

+    the junction of the enemy's forces; the next in

+    order is to attack the enemy's army in the field;

+    and the worst policy of all is to besiege walled cities.

+

+ 4. The rule is, not to besiege walled cities if it

+    can possibly be avoided.  The preparation of mantlets,

+    movable shelters, and various implements of war, will take

+    up three whole months; and the piling up of mounds over

+    against the walls will take three months more.

+

+ 5. The general, unable to control his irritation,

+    will launch his men to the assault like swarming ants,

+    with the result that one-third of his men are slain,

+    while the town still remains untaken.  Such are the disastrous

+    effects of a siege.

+

+ 6. Therefore the skillful leader subdues the enemy's

+    troops without any fighting; he captures their cities

+    without laying siege to them; he overthrows their kingdom

+    without lengthy operations in the field.

+

+ 7. With his forces intact he will dispute the mastery

+    of the Empire, and thus, without losing a man, his triumph

+    will be complete.  This is the method of attacking by stratagem.

+

+ 8. It is the rule in war, if our forces are ten

+    to the enemy's one, to surround him; if five to one,

+    to attack him; if twice as numerous, to divide our army

+    into two.

+

+ 9. If equally matched, we can offer battle;

+    if slightly inferior in numbers, we can avoid the enemy;

+    if quite unequal in every way, we can flee from him.

+

+10. Hence, though an obstinate fight may be made

+    by a small force, in the end it must be captured

+    by the larger force.

+

+11. Now the general is the bulwark of the State;

+    if the bulwark is complete at all points; the State will

+    be strong; if the bulwark is defective, the State will

+    be weak.

+

+12. There are three ways in which a ruler can bring

+    misfortune upon his army:--

+

+13. (1) By commanding the army to advance or to retreat,

+    being ignorant of the fact that it cannot obey. 

+    This is called hobbling the army.

+

+14. (2) By attempting to govern an army in the

+    same way as he administers a kingdom, being ignorant

+    of the conditions which obtain in an army.  This causes

+    restlessness in the soldier's minds.

+

+15. (3) By employing the officers of his army

+    without discrimination, through ignorance of the

+    military principle of adaptation to circumstances. 

+    This shakes the confidence of the soldiers.

+

+16. But when the army is restless and distrustful,

+    trouble is sure to come from the other feudal princes. 

+    This is simply bringing anarchy into the army, and flinging

+    victory away.

+

+17. Thus we may know that there are five essentials

+    for victory:

+    (1) He will win who knows when to fight and when

+        not to fight.

+    (2) He will win who knows how to handle both superior

+        and inferior forces.

+    (3) He will win whose army is animated by the same

+        spirit throughout all its ranks.

+    (4) He will win who, prepared himself, waits to take

+        the enemy unprepared.

+    (5) He will win who has military capacity and is

+        not interfered with by the sovereign.

+

+18. Hence the saying:  If you know the enemy

+    and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a

+    hundred battles.  If you know yourself but not the enemy,

+    for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat. 

+    If you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will

+    succumb in every battle.

+

+

+IV. TACTICAL DISPOSITIONS

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  The good fighters of old first put

+    themselves beyond the possibility of defeat, and then

+    waited for an opportunity of defeating the enemy.

+

+ 2. To secure ourselves against defeat lies in our

+    own hands, but the opportunity of defeating the enemy

+    is provided by the enemy himself.

+ 3. Thus the good fighter is able to secure himself against defeat,

+    but cannot make certain of defeating the enemy.

+

+ 4. Hence the saying:  One may know how to conquer

+    without being able to do it.

+

+ 5. Security against defeat implies defensive tactics;

+    ability to defeat the enemy means taking the offensive.

+

+ 6. Standing on the defensive indicates insufficient

+    strength; attacking, a superabundance of strength.

+

+ 7. The general who is skilled in defense hides in the

+    most secret recesses of the earth; he who is skilled in

+    attack flashes forth from the topmost heights of heaven. 

+    Thus on the one hand we have ability to protect ourselves;

+    on the other, a victory that is complete.

+

+ 8. To see victory only when it is within the ken

+    of the common herd is not the acme of excellence.

+

+ 9. Neither is it the acme of excellence if you fight

+    and conquer and the whole Empire says, "Well done!"

+

+10. To lift an autumn hair is no sign of great strength;

+    to see the sun and moon is no sign of sharp sight;

+    to hear the noise of thunder is no sign of a quick ear.

+

+11. What the ancients called a clever fighter is

+    one who not only wins, but excels in winning with ease.

+

+12. Hence his victories bring him neither reputation

+    for wisdom nor credit for courage.

+

+13. He wins his battles by making no mistakes. 

+    Making no mistakes is what establishes the certainty

+    of victory, for it means conquering an enemy that is

+    already defeated.

+

+14. Hence the skillful fighter puts himself into

+    a position which makes defeat impossible, and does

+    not miss the moment for defeating the enemy.

+

+15. Thus it is that in war the victorious strategist

+    only seeks battle after the victory has been won,

+    whereas he who is destined to defeat first fights

+    and afterwards looks for victory.

+

+16. The consummate leader cultivates the moral law,

+    and strictly adheres to method and discipline; thus it is

+    in his power to control success.

+

+17. In respect of military method, we have,

+    firstly, Measurement; secondly, Estimation of quantity;

+    thirdly, Calculation; fourthly, Balancing of chances;

+    fifthly, Victory.

+

+18. Measurement owes its existence to Earth;

+    Estimation of quantity to Measurement; Calculation to

+    Estimation of quantity; Balancing of chances to Calculation;

+    and Victory to Balancing of chances.

+

+19. A victorious army opposed to a routed one, is as

+    a pound's weight placed in the scale against a single grain.

+

+20. The onrush of a conquering force is like the bursting

+    of pent-up waters into a chasm a thousand fathoms deep.

+

+

+V. ENERGY

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  The control of a large force

+    is the same principle as the control of a few men: 

+    it is merely a question of dividing up their numbers.

+

+ 2. Fighting with a large army under your command

+    is nowise different from fighting with a small one: 

+    it is merely a question of instituting signs and signals.

+

+ 3. To ensure that your whole host may withstand

+    the brunt of the enemy's attack and remain unshaken--

+    this is effected by maneuvers direct and indirect.

+

+ 4. That the impact of your army may be like a grindstone

+    dashed against an egg--this is effected by the science

+    of weak points and strong.

+

+ 5. In all fighting, the direct method may be used

+    for joining battle, but indirect methods will be needed

+    in order to secure victory.

+

+ 6. Indirect tactics, efficiently applied, are inexhaustible

+    as Heaven and Earth, unending as the flow of rivers and streams;

+    like the sun and moon, they end but to begin anew;

+    like the four seasons, they pass away to return once more.

+

+ 7. There are not more than five musical notes,

+    yet the combinations of these five give rise to more

+    melodies than can ever be heard.

+

+ 8. There are not more than five primary colors

+    (blue, yellow, red, white, and black), yet in combination

+    they produce more hues than can ever been seen.

+

+ 9. There are not more than five cardinal tastes

+    (sour, acrid, salt, sweet, bitter), yet combinations

+    of them yield more flavors than can ever be tasted.

+

+10. In battle, there are not more than two methods

+    of attack--the direct and the indirect; yet these two

+    in combination give rise to an endless series of maneuvers.

+

+11. The direct and the indirect lead on to each other in turn. 

+    It is like moving in a circle--you never come to an end. 

+    Who can exhaust the possibilities of their combination?

+

+12. The onset of troops is like the rush of a torrent

+    which will even roll stones along in its course.

+

+13. The quality of decision is like the well-timed

+    swoop of a falcon which enables it to strike and destroy

+    its victim.

+

+14. Therefore the good fighter will be terrible

+    in his onset, and prompt in his decision.

+

+15. Energy may be likened to the bending of a crossbow;

+    decision, to the releasing of a trigger.

+

+16. Amid the turmoil and tumult of battle, there may

+    be seeming disorder and yet no real disorder at all;

+    amid confusion and chaos, your array may be without head

+    or tail, yet it will be proof against defeat.

+

+17. Simulated disorder postulates perfect discipline,

+    simulated fear postulates courage; simulated weakness

+    postulates strength.

+

+18. Hiding order beneath the cloak of disorder is

+    simply a question of subdivision; concealing courage under

+    a show of timidity presupposes a fund of latent energy;

+    masking strength with weakness is to be effected

+    by tactical dispositions.

+

+19. Thus one who is skillful at keeping the enemy

+    on the move maintains deceitful appearances, according to

+    which the enemy will act.  He sacrifices something,

+    that the enemy may snatch at it.

+

+20. By holding out baits, he keeps him on the march;

+    then with a body of picked men he lies in wait for him.

+

+21. The clever combatant looks to the effect of combined

+    energy, and does not require too much from individuals. 

+    Hence his ability to pick out the right men and utilize

+    combined energy.

+

+22. When he utilizes combined energy, his fighting

+    men become as it were like unto rolling logs or stones. 

+    For it is the nature of a log or stone to remain

+    motionless on level ground, and to move when on a slope;

+    if four-cornered, to come to a standstill, but if

+    round-shaped, to go rolling down.

+

+23. Thus the energy developed by good fighting men

+    is as the momentum of a round stone rolled down a mountain

+    thousands of feet in height.  So much on the subject

+    of energy.

+

+

+VI. WEAK POINTS AND STRONG

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  Whoever is first in the field and

+    awaits the coming of the enemy, will be fresh for the fight;

+    whoever is second in the field and has to hasten to battle

+    will arrive exhausted.

+

+ 2. Therefore the clever combatant imposes his will on

+    the enemy, but does not allow the enemy's will to be imposed on him.

+

+ 3. By holding out advantages to him, he can cause the enemy

+    to approach of his own accord; or, by inflicting damage,

+    he can make it impossible for the enemy to draw near.

+

+ 4. If the enemy is taking his ease, he can harass him;

+    if well supplied with food, he can starve him out;

+    if quietly encamped, he can force him to move.

+

+ 5. Appear at points which the enemy must hasten to defend;

+    march swiftly to places where you are not expected.

+

+ 6. An army may march great distances without distress,

+    if it marches through country where the enemy is not.

+

+ 7. You can be sure of succeeding in your attacks

+    if you only attack places which are undefended.You can

+    ensure the safety of your defense if you only hold

+    positions that cannot be attacked.

+

+ 8. Hence that general is skillful in attack whose

+    opponent does not know what to defend; and he is skillful

+    in defense whose opponent does not know what to attack.

+

+ 9. O divine art of subtlety and secrecy!  Through you

+    we learn to be invisible, through you inaudible;

+    and hence we can hold the enemy's fate in our hands.

+

+10. You may advance and be absolutely irresistible,

+    if you make for the enemy's weak points; you may retire

+    and be safe from pursuit if your movements are more rapid

+    than those of the enemy.

+

+11. If we wish to fight, the enemy can be forced

+    to an engagement even though he be sheltered behind a high

+    rampart and a deep ditch.  All we need do is attack

+    some other place that he will be obliged to relieve.

+

+12. If we do not wish to fight, we can prevent

+    the enemy from engaging us even though the lines

+    of our encampment be merely traced out on the ground. 

+    All we need do is to throw something odd and unaccountable

+    in his way.

+

+13. By discovering the enemy's dispositions and remaining

+    invisible ourselves, we can keep our forces concentrated,

+    while the enemy's must be divided.

+

+14. We can form a single united body, while the

+    enemy must split up into fractions.  Hence there will

+    be a whole pitted against separate parts of a whole,

+    which means that we shall be many to the enemy's few.

+

+15. And if we are able thus to attack an inferior force

+    with a superior one, our opponents will be in dire straits.

+

+16. The spot where we intend to fight must not be

+    made known; for then the enemy will have to prepare

+    against a possible attack at several different points;

+    and his forces being thus distributed in many directions,

+    the numbers we shall have to face at any given point will

+    be proportionately few.

+

+17. For should the enemy strengthen his van,

+    he will weaken his rear; should he strengthen his rear,

+    he will weaken his van; should he strengthen his left,

+    he will weaken his right; should he strengthen his right,

+    he will weaken his left.  If he sends reinforcements everywhere,

+    he will everywhere be weak.

+

+18. Numerical weakness comes from having to prepare

+    against possible attacks; numerical strength, from compelling

+    our adversary to make these preparations against us.

+

+19. Knowing the place and the time of the coming battle,

+    we may concentrate from the greatest distances in order

+    to fight.

+

+20. But if neither time nor place be known,

+    then the left wing will be impotent to succor the right,

+    the right equally impotent to succor the left, the van

+    unable to relieve the rear, or the rear to support the van. 

+    How much more so if the furthest portions of the army are

+    anything under a hundred LI apart, and even the nearest

+    are separated by several LI!

+

+21. Though according to my estimate the soldiers

+    of Yueh exceed our own in number, that shall advantage

+    them nothing in the matter of victory.  I say then

+    that victory can be achieved.

+

+22. Though the enemy be stronger in numbers, we may

+    prevent him from fighting.  Scheme so as to discover

+    his plans and the likelihood of their success.

+

+23. Rouse him, and learn the principle of his

+    activity or inactivity.  Force him to reveal himself,

+    so as to find out his vulnerable spots.

+

+24. Carefully compare the opposing army with your own,

+    so that you may know where strength is superabundant

+    and where it is deficient.

+

+25. In making tactical dispositions, the highest pitch

+    you can attain is to conceal them; conceal your dispositions,

+    and you will be safe from the prying of the subtlest spies,

+    from the machinations of the wisest brains.

+

+26. How victory may be produced for them out of the enemy's

+    own tactics--that is what the multitude cannot comprehend.

+

+27. All men can see the tactics whereby I conquer,

+    but what none can see is the strategy out of which victory

+    is evolved.

+

+28. Do not repeat the tactics which have gained

+    you one victory, but let your methods be regulated

+    by the infinite variety of circumstances.

+

+29. Military tactics are like unto water; for water in its

+    natural course runs away from high places and hastens downwards.

+

+30. So in war, the way is to avoid what is strong

+    and to strike at what is weak.

+

+31. Water shapes its course according to the nature

+    of the ground over which it flows; the soldier works

+    out his victory in relation to the foe whom he is facing.

+

+32. Therefore, just as water retains no constant shape,

+    so in warfare there are no constant conditions.

+

+33. He who can modify his tactics in relation to his

+    opponent and thereby succeed in winning, may be called

+    a heaven-born captain.

+

+34. The five elements (water, fire, wood, metal, earth)

+    are not always equally predominant; the four seasons make

+    way for each other in turn.  There are short days and long;

+    the moon has its periods of waning and waxing.

+

+

+VII. MANEUVERING

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  In war, the general receives his

+    commands from the sovereign.

+

+ 2. Having collected an army and concentrated his forces,

+    he must blend and harmonize the different elements thereof

+    before pitching his camp.

+

+ 3. After that, comes tactical maneuvering,

+    than which there is nothing more difficult. 

+    The difficulty of tactical maneuvering consists

+    in turning the devious into the direct, and misfortune into gain.

+

+ 4. Thus, to take a long and circuitous route,

+    after enticing the enemy out of the way, and though starting

+    after him, to contrive to reach the goal before him,

+    shows knowledge of the artifice of DEVIATION.

+

+ 5. Maneuvering with an army is advantageous;

+    with an undisciplined multitude, most dangerous.

+

+ 6. If you set a fully equipped army in march in order

+    to snatch an advantage, the chances are that you will be

+    too late.  On the other hand, to detach a flying column

+    for the purpose involves the sacrifice of its baggage

+    and stores.

+

+ 7. Thus, if you order your men to roll up their

+    buff-coats, and make forced marches without halting day

+    or night, covering double the usual distance at a stretch,

+    doing a hundred LI in order to wrest an advantage,

+    the leaders of all your three divisions will fall into

+    the hands of the enemy.

+

+ 8. The stronger men will be in front, the jaded

+    ones will fall behind, and on this plan only one-tenth

+    of your army will reach its destination.

+

+ 9. If you march fifty LI in order to outmaneuver

+    the enemy, you will lose the leader of your first division,

+    and only half your force will reach the goal.

+

+10. If you march thirty LI with the same object,

+    two-thirds of your army will arrive.

+

+11. We may take it then that an army without its

+    baggage-train is lost; without provisions it is lost;

+    without bases of supply it is lost.

+

+12. We cannot enter into alliances until we are

+    acquainted with the designs of our neighbors.

+

+13. We are not fit to lead an army on the march

+    unless we are familiar with the face of the country--its

+    mountains and forests, its pitfalls and precipices,

+    its marshes and swamps.

+

+14. We shall be unable to turn natural advantage

+    to account unless we make use of local guides.

+

+15. In war, practice dissimulation, and you will succeed.

+

+16. Whether to concentrate or to divide your troops,

+    must be decided by circumstances.

+

+17. Let your rapidity be that of the wind,

+    your compactness that of the forest.

+

+18. In raiding and plundering be like fire,

+    is immovability like a mountain.

+

+19. Let your plans be dark and impenetrable as night,

+    and when you move, fall like a thunderbolt.

+

+20. When you plunder a countryside, let the spoil be

+    divided amongst your men; when you capture new territory,

+    cut it up into allotments for the benefit of the soldiery.

+

+21. Ponder and deliberate before you make a move.

+

+22. He will conquer who has learnt the artifice

+    of deviation.  Such is the art of maneuvering.

+

+23. The Book of Army Management says:  On the field

+    of battle, the spoken word does not carry far enough: 

+    hence the institution of gongs and drums.  Nor can ordinary

+    objects be seen clearly enough:  hence the institution

+    of banners and flags.

+

+24. Gongs and drums, banners and flags, are means

+    whereby the ears and eyes of the host may be focused

+    on one particular point.

+

+25. The host thus forming a single united body,

+    is it impossible either for the brave to advance alone,

+    or for the cowardly to retreat alone.  This is the art

+    of handling large masses of men.

+

+26. In night-fighting, then, make much use of signal-fires

+    and drums, and in fighting by day, of flags and banners,

+    as a means of influencing the ears and eyes of your army.

+

+27. A whole army may be robbed of its spirit;

+    a commander-in-chief may be robbed of his presence of mind.

+

+28. Now a soldier's spirit is keenest in the morning;

+    by noonday it has begun to flag; and in the evening,

+    his mind is bent only on returning to camp.

+

+29. A clever general, therefore, avoids an army when

+    its spirit is keen, but attacks it when it is sluggish

+    and inclined to return.  This is the art of studying moods.

+

+30. Disciplined and calm, to await the appearance

+    of disorder and hubbub amongst the enemy:--this is the art

+    of retaining self-possession.

+

+31. To be near the goal while the enemy is still

+    far from it, to wait at ease while the enemy is

+    toiling and struggling, to be well-fed while the enemy

+    is famished:--this is the art of husbanding one's strength.

+

+32. To refrain from intercepting an enemy whose

+    banners are in perfect order, to refrain from attacking

+    an army drawn up in calm and confident array:--this

+    is the art of studying circumstances.

+

+33. It is a military axiom not to advance uphill

+    against the enemy, nor to oppose him when he comes downhill.

+

+34. Do not pursue an enemy who simulates flight;

+    do not attack soldiers whose temper is keen.

+

+35. Do not swallow bait offered by the enemy. 

+    Do not interfere with an army that is returning home.

+

+36. When you surround an army, leave an outlet free. 

+    Do not press a desperate foe too hard.

+

+37. Such is the art of warfare.

+

+

+VIII. VARIATION IN TACTICS

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  In war, the general receives

+    his commands from the sovereign, collects his army

+    and concentrates his forces

+

+ 2. When in difficult country, do not encamp.  In country

+    where high roads intersect, join hands with your allies. 

+    Do not linger in dangerously isolated positions. 

+    In hemmed-in situations, you must resort to stratagem. 

+    In desperate position, you must fight.

+

+ 3. There are roads which must not be followed,

+    armies which must be not attacked, towns which must

+    be besieged, positions which must not be contested,

+    commands of the sovereign which must not be obeyed.

+

+ 4. The general who thoroughly understands the advantages

+    that accompany variation of tactics knows how to handle

+    his troops.

+

+ 5. The general who does not understand these, may be well

+    acquainted with the configuration of the country, yet he

+    will not be able to turn his knowledge to practical account.

+

+ 6. So, the student of war who is unversed in the art

+    of war of varying his plans, even though he be acquainted

+    with the Five Advantages, will fail to make the best use

+    of his men.

+

+ 7. Hence in the wise leader's plans, considerations of

+    advantage and of disadvantage will be blended together.

+

+ 8. If our expectation of advantage be tempered in

+    this way, we may succeed in accomplishing the essential

+    part of our schemes.

+

+ 9. If, on the other hand, in the midst of difficulties

+    we are always ready to seize an advantage, we may extricate

+    ourselves from misfortune.

+

+10. Reduce the hostile chiefs by inflicting damage

+    on them; and make trouble for them, and keep them

+    constantly engaged; hold out specious allurements,

+    and make them rush to any given point.

+

+11. The art of war teaches us to rely not on the

+    likelihood of the enemy's not coming, but on our own readiness

+    to receive him; not on the chance of his not attacking,

+    but rather on the fact that we have made our position unassailable.

+

+12. There are five dangerous faults which may affect

+    a general:

+    (1) Recklessness, which leads to destruction;

+    (2) cowardice, which leads to capture;

+    (3) a hasty temper, which can be provoked by insults;

+    (4) a delicacy of honor which is sensitive to shame;

+    (5) over-solicitude for his men, which exposes him

+        to worry and trouble.

+

+13. These are the five besetting sins of a general,

+    ruinous to the conduct of war.

+

+14. When an army is overthrown and its leader slain,

+    the cause will surely be found among these five

+    dangerous faults.  Let them be a subject of meditation.

+

+

+IX.  THE ARMY ON THE MARCH

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  We come now to the question of

+    encamping the army, and observing signs of the enemy. 

+    Pass quickly over mountains, and keep in the neighborhood

+    of valleys.

+

+ 2. Camp in high places, facing the sun.  Do not climb

+    heights in order to fight.  So much for mountain warfare.

+

+ 3. After crossing a river, you should get far away

+    from it.

+

+ 4. When an invading force crosses a river in its

+    onward march, do not advance to meet it in mid-stream.

+    It will be best to let half the army get across,

+    and then deliver your attack.

+

+ 5. If you are anxious to fight, you should not go

+    to meet the invader near a river which he has to cross.

+

+ 6. Moor your craft higher up than the enemy, and facing

+    the sun.  Do not move up-stream to meet the enemy. 

+    So much for river warfare.

+

+ 7. In crossing salt-marshes, your sole concern

+    should be to get over them quickly, without any delay.

+

+ 8. If forced to fight in a salt-marsh, you should

+    have water and grass near you, and get your back

+    to a clump of trees.  So much for operations in salt-marches.

+

+ 9. In dry, level country, take up an easily accessible

+    position with rising ground to your right and on your rear,

+    so that the danger may be in front, and safety lie behind. 

+    So much for campaigning in flat country.

+

+10. These are the four useful branches of military

+    knowledge which enabled the Yellow Emperor to vanquish

+    four several sovereigns.

+

+11. All armies prefer high ground to low and sunny

+    places to dark.

+

+12. If you are careful of your men, and camp on hard

+    ground, the army will be free from disease of every kind,

+    and this will spell victory.

+

+13. When you come to a hill or a bank, occupy the

+    sunny side, with the slope on your right rear. 

+    Thus you will at once act for the benefit of your soldiers

+    and utilize the natural advantages of the ground.

+

+14. When, in consequence of heavy rains up-country,

+    a river which you wish to ford is swollen and flecked

+    with foam, you must wait until it subsides.

+

+15. Country in which there are precipitous cliffs

+    with torrents running between, deep natural hollows,

+    confined places, tangled thickets, quagmires and crevasses,

+    should be left with all possible speed and not approached.

+

+16. While we keep away from such places, we should

+    get the enemy to approach them; while we face them,

+    we should let the enemy have them on his rear.

+

+17. If in the neighborhood of your camp there should

+    be any hilly country, ponds surrounded by aquatic grass,

+    hollow basins filled with reeds, or woods with thick

+    undergrowth, they must be carefully routed out and searched;

+    for these are places where men in ambush or insidious

+    spies are likely to be lurking.

+

+18. When the enemy is close at hand and remains quiet,

+    he is relying on the natural strength of his position.

+

+19. When he keeps aloof and tries to provoke a battle,

+    he is anxious for the other side to advance.

+

+20. If his place of encampment is easy of access,

+    he is tendering a bait.

+

+21. Movement amongst the trees of a forest shows that the

+    enemy is advancing.  The appearance of a number of screens

+    in the midst of thick grass means that the enemy wants to make us suspicious.

+

+22. The rising of birds in their flight is the sign

+    of an ambuscade.  Startled beasts indicate that a sudden

+    attack is coming.

+

+23. When there is dust rising in a high column,

+    it is the sign of chariots advancing; when the dust is low,

+    but spread over a wide area, it betokens the approach

+    of infantry.  When it branches out in different directions,

+    it shows that parties have been sent to collect firewood. 

+    A few clouds of dust moving to and fro signify that the army

+    is encamping.

+

+24. Humble words and increased preparations are signs

+    that the enemy is about to advance.  Violent language

+    and driving forward as if to the attack are signs that he

+    will retreat.

+

+25. When the light chariots come out first and take

+    up a position on the wings, it is a sign that the enemy

+    is forming for battle.

+

+26. Peace proposals unaccompanied by a sworn covenant

+    indicate a plot.

+

+27. When there is much running about and the soldiers

+    fall into rank, it means that the critical moment has come.

+

+28. When some are seen advancing and some retreating,

+    it is a lure.

+

+29. When the soldiers stand leaning on their spears,

+    they are faint from want of food.

+

+30. If those who are sent to draw water begin

+    by drinking themselves, the army is suffering from thirst.

+

+31. If the enemy sees an advantage to be gained and

+    makes no effort to secure it, the soldiers are exhausted.

+

+32. If birds gather on any spot, it is unoccupied. 

+    Clamor by night betokens nervousness.

+

+33. If there is disturbance in the camp, the general's

+    authority is weak.  If the banners and flags are shifted

+    about, sedition is afoot.  If the officers are angry,

+    it means that the men are weary.

+

+34. When an army feeds its horses with grain and kills

+    its cattle for food, and when the men do not hang their

+    cooking-pots over the camp-fires, showing that they

+    will not return to their tents, you may know that they

+    are determined to fight to the death.

+

+35. The sight of men whispering together in small

+    knots or speaking in subdued tones points to disaffection

+    amongst the rank and file.

+

+36. Too frequent rewards signify that the enemy is

+    at the end of his resources; too many punishments betray

+    a condition of dire distress.

+

+37. To begin by bluster, but afterwards to take fright

+    at the enemy's numbers, shows a supreme lack of intelligence.

+

+38. When envoys are sent with compliments in their mouths,

+    it is a sign that the enemy wishes for a truce.

+

+39. If the enemy's troops march up angrily and remain

+    facing ours for a long time without either joining

+    battle or taking themselves off again, the situation

+    is one that demands great vigilance and circumspection.

+

+40. If our troops are no more in number than the enemy,

+    that is amply sufficient; it only means that no direct attack

+    can be made.  What we can do is simply to concentrate all

+    our available strength, keep a close watch on the enemy,

+    and obtain reinforcements.

+

+41. He who exercises no forethought but makes light

+    of his opponents is sure to be captured by them.

+

+42. If soldiers are punished before they have grown

+    attached to you, they will not prove submissive; and,

+    unless submissive, then will be practically useless. 

+    If, when the soldiers have become attached to you,

+    punishments are not enforced, they will still be unless.

+

+43. Therefore soldiers must be treated in the first

+    instance with humanity, but kept under control by means

+    of iron discipline.  This is a certain road to victory.

+

+44. If in training soldiers commands are habitually

+    enforced, the army will be well-disciplined; if not,

+    its discipline will be bad.

+

+45. If a general shows confidence in his men but always

+    insists on his orders being obeyed, the gain will be mutual.

+

+

+X. TERRAIN

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  We may distinguish six kinds of terrain,

+    to wit:  (1) Accessible ground; (2) entangling ground;

+    (3) temporizing ground; (4) narrow passes; (5) precipitous

+    heights; (6) positions at a great distance from the enemy.

+

+ 2. Ground which can be freely traversed by both sides

+    is called accessible.

+

+ 3. With regard to ground of this nature, be before

+    the enemy in occupying the raised and sunny spots,

+    and carefully guard your line of supplies.  Then you

+    will be able to fight with advantage.

+

+ 4. Ground which can be abandoned but is hard

+    to re-occupy is called entangling.

+

+ 5. From a position of this sort, if the enemy

+    is unprepared, you may sally forth and defeat him. 

+    But if the enemy is prepared for your coming, and you

+    fail to defeat him, then, return being impossible,

+    disaster will ensue.

+

+ 6. When the position is such that neither side will gain

+    by making the first move, it is called temporizing ground.

+

+ 7. In a position of this sort, even though the enemy

+    should offer us an attractive bait, it will be advisable

+    not to stir forth, but rather to retreat, thus enticing

+    the enemy in his turn; then, when part of his army has

+    come out, we may deliver our attack with advantage.

+

+ 8. With regard to narrow passes, if you can occupy

+    them first, let them be strongly garrisoned and await

+    the advent of the enemy.

+

+ 9. Should the army forestall you in occupying a pass,

+    do not go after him if the pass is fully garrisoned,

+    but only if it is weakly garrisoned.

+

+10. With regard to precipitous heights, if you are

+    beforehand with your adversary, you should occupy the

+    raised and sunny spots, and there wait for him to come up.

+

+11. If the enemy has occupied them before you,

+    do not follow him, but retreat and try to entice him away.

+

+12. If you are situated at a great distance from

+    the enemy, and the strength of the two armies is equal,

+    it is not easy to provoke a battle, and fighting will be

+    to your disadvantage.

+

+13. These six are the principles connected with Earth. 

+    The general who has attained a responsible post must be

+    careful to study them.

+

+14. Now an army is exposed to six several calamities,

+    not arising from natural causes, but from faults

+    for which the general is responsible.  These are: 

+    (1) Flight; (2) insubordination; (3) collapse; (4) ruin;

+    (5) disorganization; (6) rout.

+

+15. Other conditions being equal, if one force is

+    hurled against another ten times its size, the result

+    will be the flight of the former.

+

+16. When the common soldiers are too strong and

+    their officers too weak, the result is insubordination. 

+    When the officers are too strong and the common soldiers

+    too weak, the result is collapse.

+

+17. When the higher officers are angry and insubordinate,

+    and on meeting the enemy give battle on their own account

+    from a feeling of resentment, before the commander-in-chief

+    can tell whether or no he is in a position to fight,

+    the result is ruin.

+

+18. When the general is weak and without authority;

+    when his orders are not clear and distinct; when there

+    are no fixes duties assigned to officers and men,

+    and the ranks are formed in a slovenly haphazard manner,

+    the result is utter disorganization.

+

+19. When a general, unable to estimate the enemy's

+    strength, allows an inferior force to engage a larger one,

+    or hurls a weak detachment against a powerful one,

+    and neglects to place picked soldiers in the front rank,

+    the result must be rout.

+

+20. These are six ways of courting defeat, which must

+    be carefully noted by the general who has attained

+    a responsible post.

+

+21. The natural formation of the country is the soldier's

+    best ally; but a power of estimating the adversary,

+    of controlling the forces of victory, and of shrewdly

+    calculating difficulties, dangers and distances,

+    constitutes the test of a great general.

+

+22. He who knows these things, and in fighting puts

+    his knowledge into practice, will win his battles. 

+    He who knows them not, nor practices them, will surely

+    be defeated.

+

+23. If fighting is sure to result in victory,

+    then you must fight, even though the ruler forbid it;

+    if fighting will not result in victory, then you must not

+    fight even at the ruler's bidding.

+

+24. The general who advances without coveting fame

+    and retreats without fearing disgrace, whose only

+    thought is to protect his country and do good service

+    for his sovereign, is the jewel of the kingdom.

+

+25. Regard your soldiers as your children, and they

+    will follow you into the deepest valleys; look upon them

+    as your own beloved sons, and they will stand by you

+    even unto death.

+

+26. If, however, you are indulgent, but unable to make

+    your authority felt; kind-hearted, but unable to enforce

+    your commands; and incapable, moreover, of quelling disorder: 

+    then your soldiers must be likened to spoilt children;

+    they are useless for any practical purpose.

+

+27. If we know that our own men are in a condition

+    to attack, but are unaware that the enemy is not open

+    to attack, we have gone only halfway towards victory.

+

+28. If we know that the enemy is open to attack,

+    but are unaware that our own men are not in a condition

+    to attack, we have gone only halfway towards victory.

+

+29. If we know that the enemy is open to attack,

+    and also know that our men are in a condition to attack,

+    but are unaware that the nature of the ground makes

+    fighting impracticable, we have still gone only halfway

+    towards victory.

+

+30. Hence the experienced soldier, once in motion,

+    is never bewildered; once he has broken camp, he is never

+    at a loss.

+

+31. Hence the saying:  If you know the enemy and

+    know yourself, your victory will not stand in doubt;

+    if you know Heaven and know Earth, you may make your

+    victory complete.

+

+

+XI. THE NINE SITUATIONS

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  The art of war recognizes nine varieties of ground:

+    (1) Dispersive ground; (2) facile ground; (3) contentious ground;

+    (4) open ground; (5) ground of intersecting highways;

+    (6) serious ground; (7) difficult ground; (8) hemmed-in ground;

+    (9) desperate ground.

+

+ 2. When a chieftain is fighting in his own territory,

+    it is dispersive ground.

+

+ 3. When he has penetrated into hostile territory,

+    but to no great distance, it is facile ground.

+

+ 4. Ground the possession of which imports great

+    advantage to either side, is contentious ground.

+

+ 5. Ground on which each side has liberty of movement

+    is open ground.

+

+ 6. Ground which forms the key to three contiguous states,

+    so that he who occupies it first has most of the Empire

+    at his command, is a ground of intersecting highways.

+

+ 7. When an army has penetrated into the heart of a

+    hostile country, leaving a number of fortified cities

+    in its rear, it is serious ground.

+

+ 8. Mountain forests, rugged steeps, marshes and fens--all

+    country that is hard to traverse:  this is difficult ground.

+

+ 9. Ground which is reached through narrow gorges,

+    and from which we can only retire by tortuous paths,

+    so that a small number of the enemy would suffice to crush

+    a large body of our men:  this is hemmed in ground.

+

+10. Ground on which we can only be saved from

+    destruction by fighting without delay, is desperate ground.

+

+11. On dispersive ground, therefore, fight not. 

+    On facile ground, halt not.  On contentious ground,

+    attack not.

+

+12. On open ground, do not try to block the enemy's way. 

+    On the ground of intersecting highways, join hands

+    with your allies.

+

+13. On serious ground, gather in plunder. 

+    In difficult ground, keep steadily on the march.

+

+14. On hemmed-in ground, resort to stratagem. 

+    On desperate ground, fight.

+

+15. Those who were called skillful leaders of old knew

+    how to drive a wedge between the enemy's front and rear;

+    to prevent co-operation between his large and small divisions;

+    to hinder the good troops from rescuing the bad,

+    the officers from rallying their men.

+

+16. When the enemy's men were united, they managed

+    to keep them in disorder.

+

+17. When it was to their advantage, they made

+    a forward move; when otherwise, they stopped still.

+

+18. If asked how to cope with a great host of the enemy

+    in orderly array and on the point of marching to the attack,

+    I should say:  "Begin by seizing something which your

+    opponent holds dear; then he will be amenable to your will."

+

+19. Rapidity is the essence of war:  take advantage of

+    the enemy's unreadiness, make your way by unexpected routes,

+    and attack unguarded spots.

+

+20. The following are the principles to be observed

+    by an invading force:  The further you penetrate into

+    a country, the greater will be the solidarity of your troops,

+    and thus the defenders will not prevail against you.

+

+21. Make forays in fertile country in order to supply

+    your army with food.

+

+22. Carefully study the well-being of your men,

+    and do not overtax them.  Concentrate your energy and hoard

+    your strength.  Keep your army continually on the move,

+    and devise unfathomable plans.

+

+23. Throw your soldiers into positions whence there

+    is no escape, and they will prefer death to flight. 

+    If they will face death, there is nothing they may

+    not achieve.  Officers and men alike will put forth

+    their uttermost strength.

+

+24. Soldiers when in desperate straits lose

+    the sense of fear.  If there is no place of refuge,

+    they will stand firm.  If they are in hostile country,

+    they will show a stubborn front.  If there is no help

+    for it, they will fight hard.

+

+25. Thus, without waiting to be marshaled, the soldiers

+    will be constantly on the qui vive; without waiting to

+    be asked, they will do your will; without restrictions,

+    they will be faithful; without giving orders, they can

+    be trusted.

+

+26. Prohibit the taking of omens, and do away with

+    superstitious doubts.  Then, until death itself comes,

+    no calamity need be feared.

+

+27. If our soldiers are not overburdened with money,

+    it is not because they have a distaste for riches;

+    if their lives are not unduly long, it is not because they

+    are disinclined to longevity.

+

+28. On the day they are ordered out to battle,

+    your soldiers may weep, those sitting up bedewing

+    their garments, and those lying down letting the tears run

+    down their cheeks.  But let them once be brought to bay,

+    and they will display the courage of a Chu or a Kuei.

+

+29. The skillful tactician may be likened to the

+    shuai-jan. Now the shuai-jan is a snake that is found

+    in the ChUng mountains.  Strike at its head, and you

+    will be attacked by its tail; strike at its tail, and you

+    will be attacked by its head; strike at its middle,

+    and you will be attacked by head and tail both.

+

+30. Asked if an army can be made to imitate the shuai-jan,

+    I should answer, Yes.  For the men of Wu and the men

+    of Yueh are enemies; yet if they are crossing a river

+    in the same boat and are caught by a storm, they will come

+    to each other's assistance just as the left hand helps the right.

+

+31. Hence it is not enough to put one's trust

+    in the tethering of horses, and the burying of chariot

+    wheels in the ground

+

+32. The principle on which to manage an army is to set

+    up one standard of courage which all must reach.

+

+33. How to make the best of both strong and weak--that

+    is a question involving the proper use of ground.

+

+34. Thus the skillful general conducts his army just

+    as though he were leading a single man, willy-nilly, by

+    the hand.

+

+35. It is the business of a general to be quiet and thus

+    ensure secrecy; upright and just, and thus maintain order.

+

+36. He must be able to mystify his officers and men

+    by false reports and appearances, and thus keep them

+    in total ignorance.

+

+37. By altering his arrangements and changing

+    his plans, he keeps the enemy without definite knowledge. 

+    By shifting his camp and taking circuitous routes,

+    he prevents the enemy from anticipating his purpose.

+

+38. At the critical moment, the leader of an army

+    acts like one who has climbed up a height and then kicks

+    away the ladder behind him.  He carries his men deep

+    into hostile territory before he shows his hand.

+

+39. He burns his boats and breaks his cooking-pots;

+    like a shepherd driving a flock of sheep, he drives

+    his men this way and that, and nothing knows whither he

+    is going.

+

+40. To muster his host and bring it into danger:--this

+    may be termed the business of the general.

+

+41. The different measures suited to the nine

+    varieties of ground; the expediency of aggressive or

+    defensive tactics; and the fundamental laws of human nature: 

+    these are things that must most certainly be studied.

+

+42. When invading hostile territory, the general

+    principle is, that penetrating deeply brings cohesion;

+    penetrating but a short way means dispersion.

+

+43. When you leave your own country behind, and take

+    your army across neighborhood territory, you find yourself

+    on critical ground.  When there are means of communication

+    on all four sides, the ground is one of intersecting highways.

+

+44. When you penetrate deeply into a country, it is

+    serious ground.  When you penetrate but a little way,

+    it is facile ground.

+

+45. When you have the enemy's strongholds on your rear,

+    and narrow passes in front, it is hemmed-in ground. 

+    When there is no place of refuge at all, it is desperate ground.

+

+46. Therefore, on dispersive ground, I would inspire

+    my men with unity of purpose.  On facile ground, I would

+    see that there is close connection between all parts

+    of my army.

+

+47. On contentious ground, I would hurry up my rear.

+

+48. On open ground, I would keep a vigilant eye

+    on my defenses.  On ground of intersecting highways,

+    I would consolidate my alliances.

+

+49. On serious ground, I would try to ensure

+    a continuous stream of supplies.  On difficult ground,

+    I would keep pushing on along the road.

+

+50. On hemmed-in ground, I would block any way

+    of retreat.  On desperate ground, I would proclaim

+    to my soldiers the hopelessness of saving their lives.

+

+51. For it is the soldier's disposition to offer

+    an obstinate resistance when surrounded, to fight hard

+    when he cannot help himself, and to obey promptly when he

+    has fallen into danger.

+

+52. We cannot enter into alliance with neighboring

+    princes until we are acquainted with their designs.  We are

+    not fit to lead an army on the march unless we are familiar

+    with the face of the country--its mountains and forests,

+    its pitfalls and precipices, its marshes and swamps. 

+    We shall be unable to turn natural advantages to account

+    unless we make use of local guides.

+

+53. To be ignored of any one of the following four

+    or five principles does not befit a warlike prince.

+

+54. When a warlike prince attacks a powerful state,

+    his generalship shows itself in preventing the concentration

+    of the enemy's forces.  He overawes his opponents,

+    and their allies are prevented from joining against him.

+

+55. Hence he does not strive to ally himself with all

+    and sundry, nor does he foster the power of other states. 

+    He carries out his own secret designs, keeping his

+    antagonists in awe.  Thus he is able to capture their

+    cities and overthrow their kingdoms.

+

+56. Bestow rewards without regard to rule,

+    issue orders without regard to previous arrangements;

+    and you will be able to handle a whole army as though

+    you had to do with but a single man.

+

+57. Confront your soldiers with the deed itself;

+    never let them know your design.  When the outlook is bright,

+    bring it before their eyes; but tell them nothing when

+    the situation is gloomy.

+

+58. Place your army in deadly peril, and it will survive;

+    plunge it into desperate straits, and it will come off

+    in safety.

+

+59. For it is precisely when a force has fallen into

+    harm's way that is capable of striking a blow for victory.

+

+60. Success in warfare is gained by carefully

+    accommodating ourselves to the enemy's purpose.

+

+61. By persistently hanging on the enemy's flank, we shall

+    succeed in the long run in killing the commander-in-chief.

+

+62. This is called ability to accomplish a thing

+    by sheer cunning.

+

+63. On the day that you take up your command,

+    block the frontier passes, destroy the official tallies,

+    and stop the passage of all emissaries.

+

+64. Be stern in the council-chamber, so that you

+    may control the situation.

+

+65. If the enemy leaves a door open, you must rush in.

+

+66. Forestall your opponent by seizing what he holds dear,

+    and subtly contrive to time his arrival on the ground.

+

+67. Walk in the path defined by rule, and accommodate

+    yourself to the enemy until you can fight a decisive battle.

+

+68. At first, then, exhibit the coyness of a maiden,

+    until the enemy gives you an opening; afterwards emulate

+    the rapidity of a running hare, and it will be too late

+    for the enemy to oppose you.

+

+

+XII. THE ATTACK BY FIRE

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  There are five ways of attacking

+    with fire.  The first is to burn soldiers in their camp;

+    the second is to burn stores; the third is to burn

+    baggage trains; the fourth is to burn arsenals and magazines;

+    the fifth is to hurl dropping fire amongst the enemy.

+

+ 2. In order to carry out an attack, we must have

+    means available.  The material for raising fire should

+    always be kept in readiness.

+

+ 3. There is a proper season for making attacks with fire,

+    and special days for starting a conflagration.

+

+ 4. The proper season is when the weather is very dry;

+    the special days are those when the moon is in the

+    constellations of the Sieve, the Wall, the Wing

+    or the Cross-bar; for these four are all days of rising wind.

+

+ 5. In attacking with fire, one should be prepared

+    to meet five possible developments:

+

+ 6. (1) When fire breaks out inside to enemy's camp,

+    respond at once with an attack from without.

+

+ 7. (2) If there is an outbreak of fire, but the enemy's

+    soldiers remain quiet, bide your time and do not attack.

+

+ 8. (3) When the force of the flames has reached its height,

+    follow it up with an attack, if that is practicable;

+    if not, stay where you are.

+

+ 9. (4) If it is possible to make an assault with fire

+    from without, do not wait for it to break out within,

+    but deliver your attack at a favorable moment.

+

+10. (5) When you start a fire, be to windward of it. 

+    Do not attack from the leeward.

+

+11. A wind that rises in the daytime lasts long,

+    but a night breeze soon falls.

+

+12. In every army, the five developments connected with

+    fire must be known, the movements of the stars calculated,

+    and a watch kept for the proper days.

+

+13. Hence those who use fire as an aid to the attack show intelligence;

+    those who use water as an aid to the attack gain an accession of strength.

+

+14. By means of water, an enemy may be intercepted,

+    but not robbed of all his belongings.

+

+15. Unhappy is the fate of one who tries to win his

+    battles and succeed in his attacks without cultivating

+    the spirit of enterprise; for the result is waste of time

+    and general stagnation.

+

+16. Hence the saying:  The enlightened ruler lays his

+    plans well ahead; the good general cultivates his resources.

+

+17. Move not unless you see an advantage; use not

+    your troops unless there is something to be gained;

+    fight not unless the position is critical.

+

+18. No ruler should put troops into the field merely

+    to gratify his own spleen; no general should fight

+    a battle simply out of pique.

+

+19. If it is to your advantage, make a forward move;

+    if not, stay where you are.

+

+20. Anger may in time change to gladness; vexation may

+    be succeeded by content.

+

+21. But a kingdom that has once been destroyed can

+    never come again into being; nor can the dead ever

+    be brought back to life.

+

+22. Hence the enlightened ruler is heedful,

+    and the good general full of caution.  This is the way

+    to keep a country at peace and an army intact.

+

+

+XIII. THE USE OF SPIES

+

+

+ 1. Sun Tzu said:  Raising a host of a hundred thousand

+    men and marching them great distances entails heavy loss

+    on the people and a drain on the resources of the State. 

+    The daily expenditure will amount to a thousand ounces

+    of silver.  There will be commotion at home and abroad,

+    and men will drop down exhausted on the highways. 

+    As many as seven hundred thousand families will be impeded

+    in their labor.

+

+ 2. Hostile armies may face each other for years,

+    striving for the victory which is decided in a single day. 

+    This being so, to remain in ignorance of the enemy's

+    condition simply because one grudges the outlay of a hundred

+    ounces of silver in honors and emoluments, is the height

+    of inhumanity.

+

+ 3. One who acts thus is no leader of men, no present

+    help to his sovereign, no master of victory.

+

+ 4. Thus, what enables the wise sovereign and the good

+    general to strike and conquer, and achieve things beyond

+    the reach of ordinary men, is foreknowledge.

+

+ 5. Now this foreknowledge cannot be elicited from spirits;

+    it cannot be obtained inductively from experience,

+    nor by any deductive calculation.

+

+ 6. Knowledge of the enemy's dispositions can only

+    be obtained from other men.

+

+ 7. Hence the use of spies, of whom there are five classes: 

+    (1) Local spies; (2) inward spies; (3) converted spies;

+    (4) doomed spies; (5) surviving spies.

+

+ 8. When these five kinds of spy are all at work,

+    none can discover the secret system.  This is called "divine

+    manipulation of the threads."  It is the sovereign's

+    most precious faculty.

+

+ 9. Having local spies means employing the services

+    of the inhabitants of a district.

+

+10. Having inward spies, making use of officials

+    of the enemy.

+

+11. Having converted spies, getting hold of the enemy's

+    spies and using them for our own purposes.

+

+12. Having doomed spies, doing certain things openly

+    for purposes of deception, and allowing our spies to know

+    of them and report them to the enemy.

+

+13. Surviving spies, finally, are those who bring

+    back news from the enemy's camp.

+

+14. Hence it is that which none in the whole army are

+    more intimate relations to be maintained than with spies. 

+    None should be more liberally rewarded.  In no other

+    business should greater secrecy be preserved.

+

+15. Spies cannot be usefully employed without a certain

+    intuitive sagacity.

+

+16. They cannot be properly managed without benevolence

+    and straightforwardness.

+

+17. Without subtle ingenuity of mind, one cannot make

+    certain of the truth of their reports.

+

+18. Be subtle! be subtle! and use your spies for every

+    kind of business.

+

+19. If a secret piece of news is divulged by a spy

+    before the time is ripe, he must be put to death together

+    with the man to whom the secret was told.

+

+20. Whether the object be to crush an army, to storm

+    a city, or to assassinate an individual, it is always

+    necessary to begin by finding out the names of the attendants,

+    the aides-de-camp, and door-keepers and sentries of the general

+    in command.  Our spies must be commissioned to ascertain these.

+

+21. The enemy's spies who have come to spy on us

+    must be sought out, tempted with bribes, led away and

+    comfortably housed.  Thus they will become converted

+    spies and available for our service.

+

+22. It is through the information brought by the

+    converted spy that we are able to acquire and employ

+    local and inward spies.

+

+23. It is owing to his information, again, that we can

+    cause the doomed spy to carry false tidings to the enemy.

+

+24. Lastly, it is by his information that the surviving

+    spy can be used on appointed occasions.

+

+25. The end and aim of spying in all its five varieties

+    is knowledge of the enemy; and this knowledge can only

+    be derived, in the first instance, from the converted spy. 

+    Hence it is essential that the converted spy be treated

+    with the utmost liberality.

+

+26. Of old, the rise of the Yin dynasty was due to I

+    Chih who had served under the Hsia.  Likewise, the rise

+    of the Chou dynasty was due to Lu Ya who had served

+    under the Yin.

+

+27. Hence it is only the enlightened ruler and the

+    wise general who will use the highest intelligence of

+    the army for purposes of spying and thereby they achieve

+    great results.  Spies are a most important element in water,

+    because on them depends an army's ability to move.

+

+